Document Type : Research

Author

Secretary of the Educational Sciences Group of The Iranian Council for Reviewing Books and Text

Abstract

The present article aims at describing and criticizing the theories of chaos and complexity. Therefore, the "Critical Philosophical Exploration" method was used. The statistical population comprised all books, articles, studies, and research pertaining to the subject that was selected with purposive sampling and the maximum probable sources. The data required were collected through notetaking and analyzed by verbal and logical inference. According to the research findings, chaos theory is the science of studying complex, dynamic, nonlinear, non-equilibrium systems, and complexity theory is the science of study, description, and explanation of the behavior of complex adaptive systems characterized by butterfly effect, unknown attractors, self-similarity, emergence, feedback loops, inequality, self-organization, nesting, networking, holism, nonlinearity, and unpredictability. These theories are considered a scientific theory by Kuhn's conception, a science by the concept of soft sciences, and a paradigm because of questioning the paradigm of modernism and presenting alternative assumptions.

Keywords

Main Subjects

اعتباریان، اکبر (1386)، «نظم در آشوب»، ماه‌نامة تدبیر، س 18، ش 190.
اکوانی، سید حمدالله و سید ولی موسوی‌نژاد (1392)، «نظریة آشوب؛ مدلی برای تحلیل پیچیدگی فضای سیاسی ایران»، پژوهش‌نامة علوم سیاسی، س 8، بهار.
بارون، تی. اٍ. (1387)، نقادی و خبرگی آموزشی، ترجمة علی‌رضا کیامنش، در: برنامة درسی، نظرگاهها، رویکردها، و چشم‌اندازها، تهران: سمت؛ مشهد: به‌نشر.
حسینی، سید محمدحسین (1395)، تدوین الگوی مفهومی تغییر برنامة درسی براساس نظریه‌های آشوب ـ پیچیدگی و ارزش‌یابی تغییر برنامة درسی دورة ابتدایی نظام آموزشوپرورش کشور براساس این الگو، رسالة دکتری، تهران: دانشگاه خوارزمی.
رستگاری، عباس‌علی و بابک ثقفی (1384)، «عملکرد سیستم‌های مدیرت کیفیت در نظریة آشوب»، مدیریت، ش 101- 102.
کرم، امیر (1389)، «نظریة آشوب، فرکتال (برخال)، و سیستم‌های غیرخطی در ژئومورفولوژی»، جغرافیای طبیعی لارستان، ش 3، تابستان.
محمدی چابکی، رضا (1392 الف)، استلزامات طرح نظریه‌ای تربیتی مبتنی‌بر پارادایم پیچیدگی، رسالة دکتری، مشهد: دانشگاه فردوسی.
محمدی چابکی، رضا (1392 ب)، «مؤلفه‌های پارادایم پیچیدگی»، روششناسی علوم انسانی، س 19، ش 76، پاییز.
مشیری، سعید (1381)، «مروری بر نظریة آشوب و کاربردهای آن در اقتصاد»، پژوهشهای اقتصادی ایران، ش 12، پاییز.
نجاریان، پروانه (1394)، تبیین مبانی فلسفی نظریة پیچیدگی و استلزامات آن در برنامة درسی، رسالة دکتری، تهران: دانشگاه خوارزمی.
الوانی، مهدی و حسن دانایی‌فرد (1381)، تئوری نظم در بینظمی و مدیریت، تهران: صفار ـ اشراقی.
ویلیز، جی. (1381)، ارزش‌یابی کیفی، ترجمة علی‌رضا کیامنش، در: برنامة درسی: نظرگاهها، رویکردها، و چشم‌اندازها، مشهد: به‌نشر.
هاگرسون، نلسون ال. (1387)، کاوشگری فلسفی: نقد توسّعی،‌ ترجمة محمدجعفر پاک‌سرشت، در: روش‌شناسی مطالعات برنامة درسی، ترجمة محمود مهر‌محمدی و دیگران، تهران: سمت؛ پژوهشگاه مطالعات آموزش‌و‌پرورش.
Abel, D. L. (2009), “The Capabilities of Chaos and Complexity”, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 10, no.1.
Abel, D. L. (2011), “What Utility Does Order, Pattern or Complexity Prescribe?”, The First Gene: The Birth of Programming, Messaging and Formal Control, Department of Proto Bio Cybernetics/ Proto Bio Semiotics.
Abraham, R. H. (2011), “The Genesis of Complexity”, World Futures, vol. 67.
Al Suwailem, S. (2011), “Behavioural Complexity”, Journal of Economic Surveys, vol. 25, no. 3.
Antunes, R. and V. Gonzalez (2015), “A Production Model for Construction: A Theoretical Framework”, Buildings, vol. 5, no. 1.
Arthur, W. B. (1999), “Complexity and the Economy”, Science, vol. 284, no. 5411.
Aström, K. J. and R. M. Murray (2010), Feedback Systems: An Introduction for Scientists and Engineers, Princeton University Press.
Baranger, M. (2000), Chaos, Complexity, and Entropy, Cambridge: New England Complex Systems Institute.
Barker, P. (2000), “The Tidal Model of Mental Health Care: Personal Caring within the Chaos Paradigm”, Mental Health and Learning Disabilities Care, vol. 4.
Bar-Yam, Y. (2004), Making Things Work: Solving Complex Problems in a Complex World, NECSI: Knowledge Press.
Batty, M. (2000), “Geocomputation Using Cellular Automata”, in: Geocomputation, New York: Taylor and Francis.
Baumol, W. J. and J. Benhabib (1989), “Chaos: Significance, Mechanism, and Economic Applications”, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 3, no. 1.
Bertuglia, C. S. and F. Vaio (2005), Nonlinearity, Chaos and Complexity: The Dynamics of Natural and Social Systems, Oxford: University Press.
Bishop, R. (2009), “Chaos”, in: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2009/entries/chaos>.
Bricmont, J. (1995), “Science of Chaos or Chaos in Science?”, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 775, no. 1.
Bums, J. S. (2016), “Chaos Theory and Leadership Studies: Exploring Uncharted Seas”, Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, vol. 7, no. 3.
Butler, K. (1990), “Atomic Data Requirements for Stellar Atmospheres: Work in Munich on Hot Star Atmospheres and Winds”, in 3rd International Collogium of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Chappell, C. (1989), “Chaos Theory and Competency Based Teacher Education”, Australian Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 14, no. 2.
Cilliers, P. (1998), Complexity and Postmodernism: Understanding Complex Systems, London: Routledge.
Cilliers, P. and R. Preiser (2010), Complexity, Difference and Identity: An Ethical, Berlin: Germany Springer.
Clarke, A. and S. Collins (2007), “Complexity Science and Student Teacher Supervision”, Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. 23, no. 2.
Cole, S. (1983), “The Hierarchy of the Sciences?”, American Journal of Sociology, vol. 89, no. 1.
Collins, S. and A. Clarke (2008), “Activity Frames and Complexity Thinking: Honoring Both Public and Personal Agendas in an Emergent Curriculum”, Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. 24, no. 4.
Davis, B. and D. J. Sumara (2006), Complexity and Education: Inquiries into Learning, Teaching, and Research, Psychology Press.
Davis, B., R. Phelps, and K. Wells (2004), “Complicity: An Introduction and a Welcome”, Complicity: An International Journal of Complexity in Education, vol. 1, no. 1.
De Lope, J. and D. Maravall (2009), “Adaptation, Anticipation and Rationality in Natural and Artificial Systems: Computational Paradigms Mimicking Nature”, Natural Computing, vol. 8, no. 4.
Delic, K. A. and R. Dum (2006), “On the Emerging Future of Complexity Sciences”, Ubiquity, vol. 2.
Dictionary Reference (2015), “Change Definition”, <http://dictionary.reference.com>.
Doll, W. E. (2008), “Complexity and the Culture of Curriculum”, in: Complexity Theory and the Philosophy of Education, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Douthwaite, B. et al. (2003), “Blending ʻHardʼ and ʻSoftʼ Science: The ʻFollow-the-Technologyʼ Approach to Catalyzing and Evaluating Technology Change”, Integrated Natural Resource Management: Linking Productivity, the Environment, and Development.
English, L. D. (2007), “Complex Systems in the Elementary and Middle School Mathematics Curriculum: A focus on Modeling”, Festschrift in Honor of Gunter Torner, The Montana Mathematics Enthusiast.
Enns, C. Z. (2008), “Toward a Complexity Paradigm for Understanding Gender Role Conflict”, The Counseling Psychologist, vol. 36, no. 3.
Fanelli, D. (2010), ʻ“Positiveʼ Results Increase Down the Hierarchy of the Sciences”, Plos one, vol. 5, no. 4.
Feigenbaum, M. J. (1983), “Universal Behavior in Nonlinear Systems”, Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena, vol. 7.
Fitzgerald, L. A. and F. M. Van Eijnatten (2002), “Chaos Speak: A Glossary of Chaordic Terms and Phrases”, Journal of Organizational Change Management, vol. 4, no. 15.
Ford, A. (2010), Modeling the Environment, Island Press
Frost, P. (2009), Soft Science and Hard News, Columbia University.
Gleick, J. (2011), Chaos: Making a New Science, New York: Open Road Media.
Goldberger, A. L., D. R. Rigneyand, and B. J. West (1990), “Chaos and Fractals”, Scientific American, vol. 262.
Goldstein, J. (1999), “Emergence as a Construct: History and Issues”, Emergence, vol. 1, no. 1.
Gros, C. (2010), Complex and Adaptive Dynamical Systems, Berlin: Springer.
Gutting, G. (2012/05/17), “How Reliable are the Social Sciences”, New York Times.
Hawking, S. (2000), “I Think the Next Century will be the Century of Complexity”, San José Mercury News, Morning Final Edition, January, 23.
Hayles, N. K. (1990), Chaos Bound: Orderly Disorderin Contemporary Literature and Science, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Haynes, P. (2015), Managing Complexity in the Public Services, UK: Open University Press.
Hedges, L. V. (1987), “How Hard is Hard Science, How Soft is Soft Science? The Empirical Cumulativeness of Research”, American Psychologist, vol. 42, no. 5.
Hmelo-Silver, C. E., S. Marathe, and L. Liu (2007), “Fish Swim, Rocks Sit, and Lungs Breathe: Expertnovice Understanding of Complex Systems”, Journal of the Learning Sciences, vol. 16, no. 3.
Hoefer, C. (2016), Causal Determinism, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Horn, J. (2008), “Human Research and Complexity Theory”, Educational Philosophy and Theory, vol. 40, no. 1.
Howe, V. (1994), Chaos: A New Mathematical Paradigm, Institute for Christian Learning, USA: La Sierra University
Ian, S. (1995), Does God Play Dice? The Mathematics of Chaos, Cambridge, MA: Basil Balckwell.
Jackson, N. (2002), “Using Complexity Theory to Make Sense of the Curriculum”, .
Jacobson, M. and U. Wilensky (2006), “Complex Systems in Education: Scientific and Educational Importance and Implications for the Learning Sciences”, The Journal of the Learning Sciences, vol. 15, no. 1.
Jacobson, M. J. (2001), “Problem Solving, Cognition, and Complex Systems: Differences between Experts and Novices”, Complexity, vol. 6, no. 3.
Jakobsson, E. and Working Group 1 Collaborators (2006), “Complex Systems: Why and What?”, <http://necsi.org/events/cxedk16/cxedk16_1.html>.
Johnson, N. F. (2009), Chapter 1: Two's Company, Three is Complexity, Simply Complexity: A Clear Guide to Complexity Theory, Oneworld Publications.
Kauffman, S. A. (1991), “Antichaos and Adaptation”, Scientific American, vol. 265, no. 2.
Kellert, S. H. (1994), In the Wake of Chaos: Unpredictable Order in Dynamical Systems, University of Chicago Press.
Kelsey, D. (1988), “The Economics of Chaos or the Chaos of Economics”, Oxford Economic Papers, vol. 40, no. 1.
Kiel, L. D. and E. W. Elliott (eds.) (1996), Chaos Theory in the Social Sciences: Foundations and Applications, University of Michigan Press.
Kirk, G. S., J. E. Raven, and M. Schofield (2003), The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selcetion of Texts, Cambridge University Press.
Kuhn, L. (2008), “Complexity and Educational Research: A Critical Reflection”, in M. Mason (ed.), Complexity Theory and the Philosophy of Education, UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Ladyman, J., J. Lambert, and K. Wiesner (2013), “What is a Complex System?”, European Journal for Philosophy of Science, vol. 3, no. 1.
Lauder, M., H. M. Marynissen, and T. C. Summers (2017), “A Study of Normal Chaos: A New Research Paradigm”, SSRN Electronic Journal, <https://www.researchgate.net>.
Leadbetter, R. (2000), “Chaos”, Encyclopedia Mythica, <http://www.pantheon.org/articles/c/chaos.html>.
Leclercq, S., K. Boumédiene, and C. Baugé (2016), “Genetic Determinism of Primary Early-Onset Osteoarthritis”, Trends in Molecular Medicine, vol. 22, no. 1.
Lemons, J. (1996), Scientific Uncertainty and its Implications for Environmental Problem Solving, Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell.
Lesh, R. (2006), “Modeling Students Modeling Abilities: The Teaching and Learning of Complex Systems in Education”, The Journal of the Learning Sciences, vol. 15, no. 1.
Levy, D. (1994), “Chaos Theory and Strategy: Theory, Application, and Managerial Implications”, Strategic Management Journal, vol. 15.
Lissack, M. R. (1999), “Complexity: the Science, its Vocabulary, and its Relation to Organizations”, Emergence, vol. 1, no. 1.
Lorenz, E. N. (2005), The Essence of Chaos, University of Washington Press.
Lucas Jr, C. W. (2016), “The Role of Reductionism in Modern Science”, Foundations of Science, vol. 19, no 2.
Mason, M. (2008), “Complexity Theory and the Philosophy of Education”, Educational Philosophy and Theory, vol. 40, no. 1.
Mateos de Cabo, R. et al. (2002), “The New Complex Perspective in Economic Analysis and Business Management”, Emergence, vol. 4.
Mathews, K. M., M. C. White, and R. G. Long (1999), “Why Study the Complexity Sciences in the Social Sciences?”, Human Relations, vol. 52, no. 4.
Mattos, S. H. D. et al. (2016), “Contributions of the Complexity Paradigm to the Understanding of Cerrado's Organization and Dynamics”, Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, vol. 88, no. 4.
Maturana, H. R. and F. J. Varela (1991), “Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living”, Springer Science and Business Media, vol. 42.
Mayer-Kress, G. and S. Grossman (1989), “Chaos in the International Arms Race”, Nature, vol. 337.
McMillan, E. (2002), “Considering Organisation Structure and Design from a Complexity Paradigm Perspective”, Tackling Industrial Complexity: the Ideas that Make a Difference, Cambridge, UK: Institute of Manufacturing, University of Cambridge.
Mitchell, M. (2009), Complexity: A Guided Tour, Oxford University Press.
Morcol, G. (2001), “What Is Complexity Science? Postmodernist or Postpositivist?”, Emergence, A Journal of Complexity Issues in Organizations and Management, vol. 3, no. 1.
Morrison, K. (2008), “Educational Philosophy and the Challenge of Complexity Theory”, in: Complexity Theory and the Philosophy of Education, United Kingdom: John Wiley and Blackwell’s.
Mowles, C., R. Stacey, and D. Griffin (2008), “What Contribution Can Insights from the Complexity Sciences Make to the Theory and Practice of Development Management?”, Journal of International Development, vol. 20, no. 6.
Nadrljanski, Đ., A. Munitić, and M. Nadrljanski (2008), “Cybernetics Models of Methods in Informatics Teaching”, Infomedia, The International Journal on Informatics and New Media in Education, no.1.
Nagel, T. (1998), “Reductionism and Antireductionism”, The Limits of Reductionism in Biology, vol. 213.
Ni, X. and R. Branch (2007), “Complexity Theory”, in: Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology: A Project of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, vol. 2, Routledge.
Ni, X. et al. (2008), “Complexity Theory”, in: Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology, The Taylor and Francis E-Library.
Northrop, R. B. (2010), Introduction to Complexity and Complex Systems, Florida: CRC Press.
Olmedo, E. (2010), “Complexity and Chaos in Organisations: Complex Management”, International Journal of Complexity in Leadership and Management, vol. 1, no. 1.
Olssen, M. (2008), “Foucault as Complexity Theorist: Overcoming the Problems of Classical Philosophical Analysis”, Educational Philosophy and Theory, vol. 40, no. 1.
Oxford English Dictionary (2002), The Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 10th ed., Revise J. Pearsall (ed.), New York: Oxford University Press.
Page, S. E. (2008), The Difference: How the Power of Diversity Creates Better Groups, Firms, Schools, and Societies, Princeton University Press.
Parrish, J. K. and L. Edelstein-Keshet (1999), “Complexity, Pattern, and Evolutionary Trade-offs in Animal Aggregation”, Science, vol. 284.
Pascolo, P., F. Barazza, and R. Carniel (2006), “Considerations on the Application of the Chaos Paradigm to Describe the Postural Sway”, Chaos, Solitons and Fractals, vol. 27, no. 5.
Pavard, B. (2002), “Complexity Paradigm as a Framework for the Study of Cooperative Systems”, Revue d'Intelligence Artificielle, vol. 16.
Phelan, S. E. (2001), “What is Complexity Science, Really? Emergence”, A Journal of Complexity Issues in Organizations and Management, vol. 3, no. 1.
Pourdavood, Roland G. et al. (1999), “Complexity of School Reform: Order and Chaos”, Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association Montreal, Quebec, Canada, <http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED430286.pdf>.
Radzicki, M. J. (1990), “Institutional Dynamics, Deterministic Chaos, and Self-Organizing Systems”, Journal of Economic Issues, vol. 24, no. 1.
Richardson, K. A. (2005), “Systems Theory and Complexity: Part 3”, Emergence: Complexity and Organization, vol. 7, no. 2.
Rickles, D., P. Hawe, and A. Shiell (2007), “A Simple Guide to Chaos and Complexity”, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, vol. 61, no. 11.
Rind, D. (1999), “Complexity and Climate”, Science, vol. 284.
Robertson, R. (2014), Chaos Theory in Psychology and the Life Sciences, Psychology Press.
Rose, S. (2003), Lifelines: Life Beyond the Gene, Oxford University Press.
Rosser, J. B. (1999), “On the Complexities of Complex Economic Dynamics”, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 13, no. 4.
Sala, N. (2011), “Chaos and Complexity in Arts and Architecture”, in: Chaos and Complexity Research Compendium, vol. 1, New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Schlesinger, J. and L. P. Daley (2016), “Applying the Chaos Theory of Careers as a Framework for College Career Centers”, Journal of Employment Counseling, vol. 53, no. 2.
Schneider, M. and M. Somers (2006), “Organizations as Complex Adaptive Systems: Implications of Complexity Theory for Leadership Research”, The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 17, no. 4.
Seifert, L. et al. (2017), “Understanding Constraints on Sport Performance from the Complexity Sciences Paradigm: An Ecological Dynamics Framework”, Human Movement Science, vol. 56.
Siemens, G. (2014), Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age,  <http://er.dut.ac.za/bitstream/handle/123456789/69/Siemens_2005_Connectivism_A_learning_theory_for_the_digital_age.pdf?sequence=1>.
Smitherman, S. (2004), “Chaos and Complexity Theories: Wholes and Holes in Curriculum”, in: Chaos, Complexity, Culture, and Curriculum, New York: Peter Lang.
Stacey, R. D. (1992), Managing the Unknowable: Strategic Boundaries Between Order and Chaos in Organizations, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Stacey, R., D. Griffin, and P. Shaw (2000), Complexity and Management: Fad or Radical Challenge to Systems Thinking?, London: Routledge.
Svensson, G. and C. Padin (2012), “Teleological Approaches from Complexity Sciences in Services: Framework, Illustration and Proposition”, International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences, vol. 4, no. 3.
Tasaka, H. (1999), “Twenty-First-Century Management and the Complexity Paradigm”, Emergence, vol. 1, no. 4.
The American Heritage, New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (2005), “Chaos in Culture”, Houghton Mifflin Company, Third Edition.
The Free Dictionary (2016), “Chaos”, <thefreedictionary.com/ Chaos>.
The New England Complex Systems Institute/ NESCI (2000), About Complex Systems, <http://necsi.edu/guide/>.
Thietart, R. A. and B. Forgues (1995), “Chaos Theory and Organization”, Organization Science, vol. 6, no. 1.
Toulmin, S. (1972), “Rationality and Scientific Discovery”, in: PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, Boston: D. Reidel Publishing.
Tremblay, M. C. and L. Richard (2011), “Complexity: A Potential Paradigm for a Health Promotion Discipline”, Health Promotion International, vol. 29, no. 2.
Vocabulary.Com (2017), “Chaos”, <http://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/chaos>.
Wegener, I. (2005), Complexity Theory, Exploring the Limits of Efficient Algorithms, Translated from the German by Randall Pruim, Germany: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
Weng, G., U. S. Bhalla, and R. Iyengar (1999), “Complexity in Biological Signaling Systems”, Science, vol. 284.
Wilson, T. D. (2012), Stop Bullying the ʻSoft’ Sciences, Los Angeles Times.
Wolfram, S. (2002), “A New kind of Science vol. 5”, Champaign: Wolfram Media, American Mathematical Society, vol. 40.
Wood, P. and G. Butt (2014), “Exploring the Use of Complexity Theory and Action Research as Frameworks for Curriculum Change”, Journal of Curriculum Studies, vol. 46, no. 5.
Zhao, J. et al. (2006), “Complex Networks Theory for Analyzing Metabolic Networks”, Chinese Science Bulletin, vol. 51, no. 13.
Zia, A. et al. (2014), “From the Habit of Control to Institutional Enablement: Re-Envisioning the Governance of Social-Ecological Systems from the Perspective of Complexity Sciences”, Complexity, Governance, and Networks, vol. 1, no. 1.
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/foundation.html.
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/foundation.